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免疫检查点抑制剂相关肺炎研究进展

陈双庆, 吴文博, 韩朝辉, 曹淑敏, 张霄鹏, 段国辰

陈双庆, 吴文博, 韩朝辉, 曹淑敏, 张霄鹏, 段国辰. 免疫检查点抑制剂相关肺炎研究进展[J]. 肿瘤防治研究, 2022, 49(10): 1065-1070. DOI: 10.3971/j.issn.1000-8578.2022.22.0145
引用本文: 陈双庆, 吴文博, 韩朝辉, 曹淑敏, 张霄鹏, 段国辰. 免疫检查点抑制剂相关肺炎研究进展[J]. 肿瘤防治研究, 2022, 49(10): 1065-1070. DOI: 10.3971/j.issn.1000-8578.2022.22.0145
CHEN Shuangqing, WU Wenbo, HAN Chaohui, CAO Shumin, ZHANG Xiaopeng, DUAN Guochen. Recent Advances in Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-associated Pneumonitis[J]. Cancer Research on Prevention and Treatment, 2022, 49(10): 1065-1070. DOI: 10.3971/j.issn.1000-8578.2022.22.0145
Citation: CHEN Shuangqing, WU Wenbo, HAN Chaohui, CAO Shumin, ZHANG Xiaopeng, DUAN Guochen. Recent Advances in Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-associated Pneumonitis[J]. Cancer Research on Prevention and Treatment, 2022, 49(10): 1065-1070. DOI: 10.3971/j.issn.1000-8578.2022.22.0145

免疫检查点抑制剂相关肺炎研究进展

详细信息
    作者简介:

    陈双庆(1996-),男,硕士在读,住院医师,主要从事早期肺癌诊治的基础与临床研究

    通讯作者:

    段国辰(1965-),男,博士,教授,主要从事胸外科疾病的综合治疗,E-mail: duanguoc@126.com

  • 中图分类号: R730.51

Recent Advances in Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-associated Pneumonitis

More Information
  • 摘要:

    随着癌症生物学和发病机制研究的不断深入,免疫检查点抑制剂(ICIs)得以问世,为晚期肿瘤患者带来了新的生存希望,从而开启了癌症免疫治疗的新时代,但随着免疫治疗在临床上的广泛应用,免疫相关不良事件(irAEs)也逐渐显现出来,并广泛为一线临床医师所熟知。免疫检查点抑制剂可激活T细胞攻击体内的正常组织和器官,并导致多种不良反应。而免疫检查点抑制剂相关肺炎(CIP)是irAEs中较为罕见且预后较差的并发症之一。本文参考目前国内外相关文献,就部分ICIs的治疗机制及CIP的发病率、危险因素、发生机制、临床表现、影像学表现与CIP的分级及治疗管理作一综述。

     

    Abstract:

    With the research progress on the biology and pathogenesis of cancer, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have come into being, bringing a new hope for the survival of patients with advanced cancer and opening a new era of cancer immunotherapy. However, with the wide application of immunotherapy in clinical practice, ICI-related adverse events (irAEs) have gradually emerged and are widely known by first-line clinicians. ICIs primarily activate T cells that can attack normal tissues and organs in the body and cause a variety of adverse reactions. Checkpoint inhibitor pneumonitis (CIP) is one of the rare complications with poor prognosis in irAEs. This article reviews the therapeutic mechanism of some ICIs; the incidence, risk factors, pathogenesis, and clinical and imaging manifestations of CIP; and the classification and treatment management of CIP.

     

  • 迄今为止,肺癌仍是全球发病率与致死率较高的癌症之一[1-2]。2021年全球癌症统计数据显示肺癌死亡相关例数远远超过结直肠癌、乳腺癌和前列腺癌的总和,是40岁以上男性和60岁以上女性癌症相关死亡的主要原因[2]。随着病情的恶化,非小细胞肺癌晚期患者的生存期可能逐渐缩短至4个月[3]。全身细胞毒性化疗与放射治疗一直是晚期肺癌尤其是晚期非小细胞肺癌的主要治疗方法,但化疗与放疗的效益已经到达了一个瓶颈期[4]。靶向治疗虽已有了很大进展,但普遍存在耐药问题[5],因此,急需更加有效的治疗方式来打破这种局面。如今无手术指征及晚期肺癌最有效的治疗方法之一便是免疫治疗[4]。随着免疫治疗在临床上广泛应用与取得显著成就的同时,具有潜在致命性的免疫检查点抑制剂相关肺炎(checkpoint inhibitor pneumonitis, CIP)也逐渐被一线临床医师所熟知,在美国胸科医师协会官方出版物CHEST杂志中有文指出:CIP是免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint inhibitors, ICIs)治疗导致的免疫相关不良事件(ICI-related adverse events, irAEs)中最常见的死亡原因(23/82, 28.0%)[6]。Wang在其研究中指出:在免疫治疗过程中,CIP是造成免疫治疗被迫中断与导致患者死亡的重要因素之一[7]

    肿瘤免疫治疗现已有百余年历史,并且在近十年来取得了显著成果,用于治疗黑色素瘤的Ipilimumab(CTLA-4抗体)和Pembrolizumab(PD-1抗体)分别于2011年与2014年获批,标志着肿瘤免疫检查点抑制剂疗法时代的到来[8]。其被2013年12月美国《科学》杂志推选为年度十大科技突破之首[9],之后于2018年更是一举斩获了年度诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。在肿瘤治疗史上,免疫治疗是继靶向治疗与传统治疗后的第三次伟大创新性发展[10]。免疫治疗可进一步延长肿瘤患者的无进展生存期和总生存期[11]。近年来,以免疫检查点通路为靶点的免疫治疗药物在临床试验中显示出巨大的前景,并已迅速纳入晚期非小细胞肺癌的标准治疗[12],晚期非小细胞肺癌患者的5年生存率由化疗时代的5%提高至16%~23%[13]

    近年来以细胞毒性T淋巴细胞相关抗原-4(cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4, CTLA-4)和程序性死亡受体-1(programmed death receptor 1, PD-1)/程序性死亡受体-配体1、程序性死亡受体-配体2(programmed death 1 ligand 2, PD-L1/PD-L2)抑制剂为代表的ICIs发展最为迅速,研究也最为深入[14-15]。针对PD-1免疫检查点的抑制剂如pembrolizumab、nivolumab,针对PD-L1免疫检查点的抑制剂如durvalumab、atezolizumab、avelumab与针对CTLA-4的免疫检查点抑制剂如Ipilimumab等药物已在晚期临床试验中进行了研究,有研究表明与二线化疗相比,患者无进展生存期与总生存期均得到显著改善[16-17]

    CTLA-4是一种负调控受体,主要表达于T淋巴细胞,小部分表达于其他免疫细胞[18]。机体正常状态下激活后的T淋巴细胞可表达CTLA-4,与同样表达于T淋巴细胞的关键性共刺激受体CD28分子竞争性结合抗原递呈细胞表面的B7家族分子(B7-1/CD80和B7-2/CD86),使T淋巴细胞的增殖与活化被抑制,进而降低免疫系统的肿瘤杀伤力[19]。免疫治疗可通过阻断CTLA-4与B7分子的结合,促进T淋巴细胞的活化与增殖,加强T淋巴细胞的肿瘤杀伤能力以达到杀伤肿瘤的治疗目的[18-20]

    单克隆PD-1是一种表达于多种免疫细胞的共抑制受体,正常情况下与其配体PD-L1/PD-L2相互作用,抑制T淋巴细胞的杀伤作用。肿瘤细胞的PD-L1与T淋巴细胞的PD-1结合后,将会导致T淋巴细胞失活甚至衰竭,最终导致患者机体内肿瘤细胞免疫逃逸[21]。PD-1/PD-L1抑制剂可特异性识别并结合T淋巴细胞和肿瘤细胞上相应的PD-1/PD-L1,从而重新启动患者机体内T淋巴细胞对肿瘤细胞的杀伤作用,使肿瘤细胞发生程序性死亡。PD-1/PD-L1抑制剂被认为是继CTLA-4抑制剂之后发现的又一种重要的ICIs[20, 22]

    ICIs可促使T淋巴细胞攻击那些表达自身抗原的正常组织细胞,引起免疫自身耐受改变,这不同于化疗和放疗后不良事件,可以表现为一系列独特的疾病,临床上称之为irAEs,其最常见的受累器官为皮肤、肺、胃肠道、肝脏和内分泌器官[23]。CIP的定义是在ICIs治疗后出现呼吸困难等其他呼吸道症状,或原有呼吸道症状加重,并在CT上显现出新的炎性反应性病变。其是一种预后相对较差、死亡率相对较高的严重并发症[24]

    CIP的发病机制尚未完全明确,被广泛认为与ICIs引起的机体免疫失调有关[25]。部分研究提示CIP的发生主要与以下几种因素有关[19, 25-28]

    CIP发生可能与T细胞对肿瘤细胞与机体正常组织中所表达的交叉抗原活性增加有关[25]。在T淋巴细胞中,中央记忆T淋巴细胞(central memory T cell, Tcm)数量增加,而CTLA-4和PD-1表达降低,其对CD8+T淋巴细胞、常规T淋巴细胞(如Tcm)和巨噬细胞促炎反应具有负向调节作用,活化的肺泡T淋巴细胞数量增加和抗炎性的调节性T淋巴细胞减少可能导致T淋巴细胞活性失调[25]。活化的T淋巴细胞在介导对肿瘤细胞杀伤的同时也会损害肺泡上皮等细胞从而导致CIP[19]。细胞学检查发现肺内淋巴细胞常有异常聚集及所占比例有所增加在很大程度上支持此观点[29]

    机体预存的自身抗体水平(如抗类风湿因子抗体、抗核抗体、抗甲状腺过氧化物酶抗体等)增高[28]:与甲状腺功能障碍及皮肤不良反应等irAEs不同,与CIP相关的特异性抗体仍在进一步研究进展中[25, 28]

    采用ICIs治疗,正常组织中的T淋巴细胞也会被激活,被活化的T淋巴细胞可分泌一系列的炎性细胞因子,其参与了CIP的发生与发展[25]。如白介素-6在肿瘤微环境中具有促炎作用,还通过激活STAT-3蛋白在促进肿瘤发生发展过程中起着至关重要的作用[26]。另外,炎性细胞因子也可以作为不良事件的生物标志物,它们的高表达常与严重的ICIs毒性相关[25]。据报道,一例非小细胞肺癌患者在接受PD-1抑制剂(阿特珠单抗)免疫治疗后出现CIP,其C反应蛋白和白细胞介素-6水平均有异常升高,将患者CIP病情控制稳定后,白介素-6与C反应蛋白均有下降,这些数据有力的支持了炎性细胞因子在发病过程中的潜在作用[27]

    据文献报道,临床试验报告中CIP的发病率为3%~5%[6, 27, 30]。另有研究指出,在12 876例患者的23项随机对照实验中,5.17%的CIP发生与使用PD-1抑制剂相关,其中3级及以上的CIP发病率为4.14%[31]。该研究进一步表明,Pembrolizumab治疗后3级及以上CIP的发病率(约为5.64%)高于其他PD-1抑制剂治疗后的发生率,而PD-L1抑制剂治疗后所有等级的CIP发病率(约为3.25%)相对较低[31]

    CIP的危险因素尚未有明确定论。不过有研究表明,CIP的危险因素可能有以下几点[32-34]:(1)既往肺部相关疾病史:如气胸、哮喘、胸腔积液、肺结核等;(2)既往有胸部放疗史和既往有联合化疗史;(3)高龄(年龄≥70岁)及吸烟史;(4)肿瘤病理性质:鳞癌患者CIP发病率较腺癌高;(5)使用PD-1抑制剂的患者CIP的发病率相比于其他较高。

    在CIP患者中,大多数为年龄 > 60岁的男性,三分之二以上的患者为吸烟者[33, 35-38]。在确诊CIP时,超过二分之一的患者肿瘤得到有效控制,22.7%~61%的患者存在客观不良反应,32.8%~45.5%的患者肿瘤得到稳定控制,5%~31.8%的患者肿瘤有实质性进展[35, 36, 38]。7%~33%的患者在确诊时无明显临床症状[35, 37-38]。在有症状的患者中,主要症状表现为呼吸困难(41%~80%),其次是咳嗽(23%~53%),少见胸痛(7%)[36-38]。有三分之一的患者有低氧血症和急性呼吸窘迫综合征,其预后往往欠佳[39],只有不到三分之一的患者有发热(12%~33%)[35-36, 38]。CIP的临床表现缺乏特异性,这为临床诊断带来了一定的难度。

    CIP常累及双肺,累及单肺较少见[39]。其影像学表现多样但无明显特异性,包括弥漫性磨玻璃结节、散在性磨玻璃结节、肺实变、肺小叶间隔增厚、网状影、广泛的支气管扩张以及结节影和纤维带状影等[21]。最常见的影像学表现是磨玻璃结节(81.3%),其次是实性结节(53.1%),影像学表现常与CIP的进展程度及预后相关[40]。一项回顾性研究表明,同一CIP患者的胸部CT可以表现为多种影像学表现[41]。美国胸科协会与欧洲呼吸协会在2013对间质性肺炎分类和诊断标准的国际共识进行了补充与修订,按照这一共识的最新标准将CIP的影像学表现分为:(1)非特异性间质性肺炎型:影像学表现的CIP较为少见,多表现为轻型肺炎[39]。胸部CT多表现为双肺下叶磨玻璃混浊影伴明显牵引性支气管扩张和下叶体积减小[42];(2)机化性肺炎型:是CIP最常见的影像学表现类型,占19%~65%[39]。胸部CT多表现为单肺或双肺的肺内出现斑块样实变影,主要分布于胸膜下与细支气管周围,常以中下肺多见,实变区域内还可见支气管充气征或轻度柱状支气管扩张[39, 42];(3)过敏性肺炎型:同样较为少见,胸部CT多表现为以中上肺为主的斑块状磨玻璃影与小叶中心结节[39, 42]

    CIP由于其临床表现及影像学表现等缺乏特异性,故在排除肺部感染、肿瘤进展、充血性心力衰竭等其他病因后,可诊断为CIP。考虑到CIP与感染性肺炎临床鉴别困难,建议在呼吸条件可控的情况下,尽早对疑似CIP的患者行支气管镜检查以明确诊断。支气管镜检查可排除感染性肺炎等疾病[14]。在患有CIP时,支气管镜下肺泡灌洗液(bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, BALF)常提示肺泡淋巴细胞炎性反应。BALF细胞学检查常显示淋巴细胞的所占比例增加。患者也可在支气管镜检查时进行经支气管肺活检,取出病理以明确CIP的诊断[21, 43]

    根据美国国立综合癌症网络(National Comprehensive Cancer Network, NCCN)指南,CIP通常根据影像学表现和(或)临床症状行以下分级:1级:无明显症状。胸部CT上病变局限于肺叶或小于肺实质的25%;2级:新出现呼吸道症状或原有症状加重,包括呼吸短促、咳嗽、胸痛、发热等。胸部CT上病变累及25%~50%的肺实质;3级:症状严重,日常活动受限。胸部CT上病变累及全部肺叶或肺实质的50%及以上;4级:危及生命的呼吸损伤[24, 26]

    糖皮质激素是CIP的基本治疗方法。据国外研究数据显示,常规使用糖皮质激素治疗可控制70%~80%的CIP病例[44-45]。若应用激素48 h后没有缓解的病例,建议使用免疫抑制剂,支持治疗对于CIP而言同样很重要,包括呼吸支持、全身支持和并发症等治疗[43]。(1)CIP 1级患者:应对患者病情进行密切监测,如果观察到病情继续进展,应考虑激素治疗。建议使用等效剂量的泼尼松龙(每天1~2 mg/kg),而对于症状更严重或急发的病例,应首选静脉注射糖皮质激素。在临床症状缓解后,应逐渐减少药量。治疗的总疗程为6~8周,通常不超过12周[43]。大部分1级CIP患者经糖皮质激素治疗后恢复良好,但仍有相当一部分患者因继发性感染、肿瘤进展或免疫抑制剂治疗难以继续进行而预后不良[43, 46];(2)CIP 2级患者:在糖皮质激素治疗期间应暂停使用ICIs。待CIP治疗恢复后,再考虑是否对患者再次使用ICIs。对于那些经过糖皮质激素治疗后疗效不佳、未进行8~12周完整周期的糖皮质激素治疗或CIP治愈后肺功能严重下降的患者,不建议再次使用ICIs[24, 43-45];(3)CIP 3、4级患者:几乎所有指南都建议永久停止ICIs治疗[44]。如果使用糖皮质激素48 h后症状仍未改善,则可加用霉酚酸酯或静脉注射免疫球蛋白治疗[43]。有文献指出,CIP的预后与其严重程度相关,重度CIP患者ICIs的疗效明显低于非重度CIP患者[24]

    难治性CIP定义为对初始糖皮质激素治疗不敏感(即使用糖皮质激素48~72 h后仍无临床改善)的CIP[14, 43]。治疗方法:(1)大量糖皮质激素冲击:如前所述,糖皮质激素一直是CIP的基础治疗方法;(2)静脉注射免疫球蛋白:静脉注射免疫球蛋白可通过自身抗体和调节T淋巴细胞功能等多种机制发挥其抗炎作用,也用于治疗其他的irAEs[14];(3)Infliximab:Infliximab是一种抗肿瘤因子抗体,已被批准用于炎症性肠病、类风湿关节炎和银屑病等。研究表明Infliximab也可用于治疗难治性CIP,但其疗效尚不明确且缺乏明确的官方证据[33];(4)Tocilizumab:Tocilizumab是一种白细胞介素-6受体抑制剂,常被用于治疗炎症性关节炎与干燥综合征等疾病。目前有文献指出,超过80%的irAEs通过糖皮质激素与Tocilizumab联合治疗使病情得到控制[47],但其具体疗效与是否可作为首选二线免疫治疗药物仍有待考究[14, 43]

    虽然CIP发生机制暂未完全明确,但可以肯定的是,免疫功能异常与其发生发展具有一定联系。CIP的危险因素包括肿瘤病理性质、既往胸部放射治疗与联合化疗史、吸烟史、既往肺部疾病史、年龄等。有这些危险因素的患者在使用ICIs时应注意CIP的发生。其目前的诊断主要依赖于临床症状、影像学表现及ICIs治疗史,但笔者认为鉴别诊断是正确治疗疾病的前提。CIP患者若不及时给予治疗,很可能会导致严重后果。采用糖皮质激素治疗可以使大多数患者的病情得以改善,而对于糖皮质激素无法控制的病例,可以在排除其他疾病的前提下适当选择一些生物制剂。关于治疗方面,虽然目前的指南与诸多学者提供了建议,但是仍存在许多问题,包括未明确最佳治疗方法,难治性与晚期CIP的治疗问题仍存在争议等,这些问题需要我们在未来的临床工作与研究中加以努力解决。

    Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
    作者贡献:
    陈双庆、吴文博:文章构思、资料收集及解读、文章撰写及修改
    韩朝辉、曹淑敏:资料收集及解读
    张霄鹏:文章修改
    段国辰:文章选题、设计及审校
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  • 收稿日期:  2022-02-20
  • 修回日期:  2022-06-26
  • 网络出版日期:  2024-01-12
  • 刊出日期:  2022-10-24

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